Female Leadership Style: Evolving Paradox

Appelbaum, S., Audet, L. and Miller, J. (2003). Gender and leadership? Leadership and gender? journey through the landscape of theories. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 24(1), pp.43--51.
Bennis, W. G. (1959). Leadership Theory and Administrative Behavior: The Problem of Authority. Administrative Science Quarterly, 4,259-301.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2390911
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological review, 109(3), 573-598.
Eagly, A. and Johnson, B. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis.
Psychological bulletin, 108(2), p.233.
Eagly, A. and Carli, L. (2007a). Through the labyrinth. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press.
Eagly, A. and Carli, L. (2007b). Women and the labyrinth of leadership. Harvard Business Review, 85(9), p.62.
Fagenson, E. (1987). Breaking the Glass Ceiling. The Academy of Management Executive, 1(4), pp.351 352.
Heilman, M.E. & Chen, J. J. (2003). Entrepreneurship as a solution: The Allure of self- employment for women and minorities.Human Resource Management Review, 13, 347- 364.
Heilman, M.E. (2001), ‘Description and prescription: how gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder’, Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657–74.
Henning, M. & Jardim, A. The managerial women . Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1977
Management Journal, 37(5), pp.1335-1346.

Kucinskas, Jaime. “A Research Note on Islam and Gender Egalitarianism: An Examination of Egyptian and Saudi Arabian Youth Attitudes.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 49, no. 4 (2010): 761-770.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2010.01545.x/abstract
Ridgeway, C. and Correll, S. (2004). Unpacking the Gender System A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations. Gender & Society, 18(4), pp.510--531.
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.
Rudman, L., & Heppen, J. (2003). Implicit romantic fantasies and women's interest in personal power: A glass slipper effect? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1357-1370.
Why Women Still Can't Have It All, THE ATLANTIC, (July/August 2012). (link to URL at TheAtlantic.com).
Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms.Psychological Bulletin, 137, 616– 642. doi:10.1037/a0023557
Kotter, J., (1999), John P. Kotter on what leaders really do, Harvard: Harvard University Press.
Loden, M. (1985). Feminine leadership or how to succeed in business without being one of the boys. New York: Time Books.
Acker, J., (1992) Gendering organizational theory. In Mills, A.J., and Tancred, P., Gendering organizational analysis Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
Alimo-Metcalfe, B., and Alban-Metcalfe, J., (2005) The crucial role of leadership in meeting the challenges of change. Vision 9(2) 27-39
Anderson, B.A., (2005) Expatriate selection: Good management or good luck? The International Journal of Human Resource Management 16(4) 567-583
Anderson, D., and Kelliher, C., (2009a) Flexible working and engagement: The importance of choice. Strategic HR Review, 8 (2) 13-18
Anderson, S., and Eswaran, M., (2009b) What determines female autonomy? Evidence from Bangladesh. Journal of Development Economics 90 179-191
Armstrong, M., (2011) How to manage people London: Kogan Page

Beale, D., and Hoel, H., (2011) Workplace bullying and the employment relationship: Exploring questions of prevention control and context. Work, Employment and Society 25(1) 5-19
Berne, E., (2010) Games people play: The psychology of human relationships. London: Penguin Books Ltd
Blau, F.D. and Kahn, L.M. (2007) Changes in the labor supply behavior of married women: 1980–2000. Journal of Labor Economics 25(3) 393
Briggs, M. (2012). An analysis of personality theory. Unpublished manuscript, Walden University.
Briggs, A.R.J. 2007. The use of modelling for theory building in qualitative analysis. British Educational Research Journal, 33(4): 589–603.
Briggs, A.R.J., Clark, J. & Hall, I., 2009, ‘Bridging the Gap: project report on student transition’,Newcastle University, UK. Available online at: http://www.ncl.ac.uk/cflat/documents/BridgingtheGapfinalreportv6.pdf (accessed 21
March 2013).
Calas, M.B., and Smircich, L., (1993) Dangerous liaisons: The 'feminine-in-management' meets 'globalization’ Business Horizons, March/April 71-81
Conley, H., (2011a) Flexibility and equality: Friend or foe? In Healy, G., Kirton G. and Noon,
M. (eds) Equality, inequalities and diversity – Contemporary challenges and strategies
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan pp 19-32
Contu, A., (2007) Groups and teams at work. In Knights, D. and Willmott, H.(2012) Introducing organizational behaviour and management London: Thomson Learning 118- 143
Cook, S., (1994) The cultural implications of empowerment Empowerment in Organizations 2(2) 9 - 13
Cooke, B., and Dar, S., (2008) Introduction: Critiquing the dual modernization. In Dar, S. and Cooke, B. (eds) The new development management: Critiquing the dual modernization London: Zed Books 1-17
Courpasson, D., (2006) Managerial strategies of domination: Power in soft bureaucracies.
Organization Studies, 21(1) 141-161
Day, D. V., & Zaccaro, S. J. (2007). Leadership: A critical historical analysis of the influence

of leader traits. L. L. Koppes (Ed.), Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 383–405). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Doldor, E., Vinnicombe, S., Gaughan, M., & Sealy, R. (2012) Gender diversity on boards: The appointment process and the role of executive search firms Equality and Human Rights Commission Research Report, 85.
Eastin, J., & Prakash, A. (2013). Economic Development and Gender Equality: Is there a Gender Kuznets Curve?. World Politics, 65, 1.
Fagenson, E.A., (1990) Perceived Masculine and feminine attributes examined as a function of individuals' sex and level in the organizational power hierarchy: A test of four theoretical perspectives. Journal of Applied Psychology 75 204-211
Fagot, B. I. (1978). The influence of gender of child on parental reactions to toddler children. Child Development, 49, 459-465.
Fairlie, R.W., and Robb, A.M., (2009) Gender differences in business performance: Evidence from the characteristics of business owners' survey. Small Business Economics 33(4) 375
Farrell, K., (2001) Human resource issues as barriers to staff retention and development in the tourism industry. Irish Journal of Management 22(2) 1-18
Fenn, M. (1978). Making it in management: A behavioral approach for women executives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gajjala, R., Zhang, Y., & Dako-Gyeke, P. (2010). Lexicons of Women's Empowerment Online: Appropriating the other. Feminist Media Studies, 10(1), 69-86.
Gary N. Powell - Women and Men in Management - Thousand Oaks - SAGE Publications - 2011 - 4th Ed.
Gaunt, R., (2012) Breadwinning moms, caregiving dads: Double standards in social judgments of gender norm violators. Journal of Family Issues 0192513X12438686, first published on April 4, 2012 doi:10.1177/0192513X12438686
Gelfand, M.J., Nishii, L.H., Raver, J.L., & Schneider, B. (2005). Discrimination in organizations: An organizational-level systems perspective. In R.L. Dipboye and A. Colella (Eds.), Discrimination at work: The psychological and organizational bases (pp. 89-116). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Gizelis, Theodora-Ismene. (2009) Gender Empowerment and United Nations

Peacebuilding. Journal of Peace Research 46(4): 505–523.
Goby, V. P., & Erogul, M. S. (2011, August). Female entrepreneurship in the United Arab Emirates: Legislative encouragements and cultural constraints. In Women's Studies International Forum (Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 329-334). Pergamon.
Goodale, J. G., & Hall, D. T. (1976). Inheriting a career: The influence of sex, values, and parents. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 8(1), 19-30.
Grant, D., (1999) HRM, rhetoric and the psychological contract: A case of easier said than done.
International Journal of Human Resource Management 10(1) 327-350
Greene, A., and Kirton, G., (2011) The value of investigating stakeholder involvement. In Farnham, G.S., Diversity management. Diversity in the workplace: Multi-disciplinary and international perspectives Bristol: Gower
Grey, C., (1999) “We are all managers now?”; “We Always Were”, On the development and demise of management. Journal of Management Studies, 36 (5) 561-586
Gries, T. and Naudé, W.A. (2009) Entrepreneurship and regional economic growth: Towards a general theory of start-ups. The European Journal of Social Science Research 22(3) 309-328

Gries, T. and Naudé, W.A. (2010) Entrepreneurship and structural economic transformation. Small Business Economics Journal 34(1) 13-29
Hackman, J. Richard, and Ruth Wageman. 2007. Asking the right questions about leadership: Discussion and conclusions. American Psychologist 62, no. 1: 43-47.
Healy, G. Heery, E and Taylor, P. (2004) ‘Representation at work: Themes and issues’, 1- 36, in ‘The Future of Worker Representation’, edited by G. Healy, E. Heery, P.Taylor, W. Brown, London: Palgrave.
Healy, G., (2010) ‘Reflections on researching intersectionality and inequality regimes’ in Ozbilgin, M., (ed) Theory and Scholarship in Equality and Diversity – a Research Companion, London: Edward Elgar.
Healy, G., and Kirton, G., (2002) Professional and Highly Qualified Women in Two Contrasting Trade Unions’ in Colgan, F. and S. Ledwith Gender, Diversity and Trade Unions: International Perspectives, Routledge: London
Healy, G., Bradley, H., and Mukherjee, N., (2004) ‘Inspiring Union Women – Black and minority ethnic women in trade unions in Healy, G., Heery, E., Taylor,P., and Brown, W.,

‘The Future of Worker Representation’, London: Palgrave pp:103-126
Healy, G., G. Kirton and M. Noon (2011) ‘Inequalities, intersectionality and equality and diversity initiatives: the conundrums and challenges of researching equality, inequality and diversity’ in Healy, G., Kirton, G., and Noon, M., (2011) Equality, Inequalities and Diversity Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
Healy, G., Heery, E., and Taylor,P., (2004) ‘Representation at Work: Themes and Issues’, in Healy, G., Heery, E., Taylor,P., and Brown, W., ‘The Future of Worker Representation London: Palgrave pp.1-36
Helgesen, S. (1996). day, 1995, 304 pages, $24.95. LYNN SUMMERS, 759.
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The Motivation to Work (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hinkin, T.R., (1995) A review of scale development practices in the study of organizations.
Journal of Management 21(5) 967-988
Hinkin, T.R., and Schriesheim, C.A., (1989) Development and application of new scales to measure the French and Raven (1959) bases of social power. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(4) 561-567
Hladik, M., (2012) Grass ceiling: Overhangs surge in female farmers [online] in Women's News available at http://womensenews.org/story/entrepreneurship/120919/grass- ceiling-overhangs-surge-in-female-farmers retrieved 27th Nov 2012
Jackson, P.R., Wall, T.D., Martin, R., and Davids, K., (1993). New measures of job control, cognitive demand and production responsibility. Journal of Applied Psychology 78(1) 753- 762
Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral of cynicism: The press and the public good. Oxford University Press on Demand.
Kark R., Waismel-Manor, R., and Shamir, B., (2012) Does valuing androgyny and femininity lead to a female advantage? The relationship between gender-role, transformational leadership and identification. The Leadership Quarterly 23(3) June 620-640
Karsten, M. F (1994). Management and gender. New York: Praeger. Kenny, D.A., (1979) Correlations and causality. New York: Wiley
Kulich, C., Trojanowski, G., Ryan, M.K., Haslam, S.A., and Renneboog, L.D.R., (2011) Who gets the carrot and who gets the stick? Evidence of gender disparities in executive remuneration. Strategic Management Journal 32(1) 301-321

Lyness, K. S., & Heilman, M. E. (2006). When fit is fundamental: Performance evaluations and promotions of upper-level female and male managers. DOI: 10.1037/0021- 9010.91.4.777
Lyness, K.S., and Thompson, D.E., (1997) Above the glass ceiling?: A comparison of matched samples of female and male executives. Journal of Applied Psychology 82(3) 359- 375
March, J., (2007) The study of organizations and organizing since 1945. Organization Studies 28(1) 9-19
Mainiero, L.A. 1986. "Coping With Powerlessness: The Relationship of Sex and Job Dependency to Empowerment Strategy Usage".Administrative Science Quarterly, 31(4), 633-653.
Powell, T. C. (1995). Total quality management as competitive advantage: a review and empirical study. Strategic management journal, 16(1), 15-37.
Purcell, J., & Hutchinson, S. (2007). Front?line managers as agents in the HRM? performance causal chain: theory, analysis and evidence. Human Resource Management Journal, 17(1), 3-20.
Radtke, H., and Henderikus, S., (1994) Social Relations in Theory and Practice Sage
Reed, M., (1996) ‘Organizational Theorizing’ In Clegg, S., Hardy, C., and Nord, W., (eds),
Handbook of Organization Studies. London: Sage
Ridgeway, C.L., (2001) Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues 57(4) 637- 655
Riggio, R. (1986) Assessment of basic social skills. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(3) 649-660
Rosener, J. B. (1990). Ways women lead. Greenwood Press
Ryan, M. K., and Haslam, S. A., (2004) Beyond the glass ceiling. Women in the boardroom: A bird’s eye view. CIPD Change Agenda. June London: CIPD
Ryan, M. K., and Haslam, S. A., (2005a) The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over- represented in precarious leadership positions. British Journal of Management 16(1) 81- 90
Ryan, M. K., and Haslam, S. A., (2005b) The glass cliff: Implicit theories of leadership and gender and the precariousness of women’s leadership positions. In Schyns, B., and Meindl, J. R., (eds), Implicit leadership theories: Essays and explorations Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing 137-160
Ryan, M. K., and Haslam, S. A., (2006a) The glass cliff: The stress of working on the edge.

European Business Forum 27(1) 42-47
Ryan, M. K., and Haslam, S. A., (2006b) What lies beyond the glass ceiling? The glass cliff and the potential precariousness of women’s leadership positions. Human Resources Management International Digest 14(1) 3-5
Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A., Hersby, M.D., and Bongiorno, R., (2011) Think crisis–think female: The glass cliff and contextual variation in the think manager–think male stereotype. Journal of Applied Psychology 96(1) 470-484
Sagan, E. (1988). Freud, women, and morality: The psychology of good and evil(pp. 153- 56). New York: Basic Books.
Sealy, R., and Vinnicombe, S., (2010) Boardroom balance. Management Focus (28) 24-25 Seierstad, C., and Healy, G., (2012) Women's equality in the Scandinavian academy: A distant dream. Work, Employment and Society 26(2) 296-313
Shapira, T., Khalid, A., and Azaiza, F., (2010) Arab women principals' empowerment and leadership in Israel. Journal of Educational Administration, 48(6) 704-715
Shimei Yan, Shizhi Yan and Man Zhang, Manifestation of gender discrimination in the process of human resources development—A content analysis based on interview data, Frontiers of Business Research in China, 3, 3, (470), (2009).
Sinclair, A. (2004). Journey around leadership. Discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education, 25(1), 7-19.
Schmiege S, Russo NF. Depression and unwanted first pregnancy: longitudinal cohort study. British Medical Journal 2005;331:1303e6.
Silverstone PH, Salsali M. Low self-esteem and psychiatric patients: part I e the relationship between low self-esteem and psychiatric diagnosis. Annals of General Hospital Psychiatry 2003;2:2.
Terjesen S, Sealy R and Singh V (2009) Women directors on corporate boards: A review and research agenda. Corporate Governance: An International Review; 17 (3): 320–337.
Van Nostrand, Catherine H. Gender-Responsible Leadership: Detecting Bias, Implementing Interventions. Newsbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc., 1993.
Wilson-Kovacs, D., Haslam, A., and Ryan, M. K., (2006) Exploring the glass cliff: Women’s experiences in IT. WINIT Conference Proceedings: Salford

Al-Halwachi, L. F. (2018). Female Leadership Style: Evolving Paradox. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(6) 703-721.

Copyright: © 2018 The Author(s)
Published by Human Resource Management Academic Research Society (www.hrmars.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode