Coach-athlete relationships combine expertise, care and dependency, and safeguarding research shows that harm often arises through normalised practices rather than exceptional individuals. This article uses critical analytic autoethnography to examine coach authority through two narrative sources written twenty years apart: a doctoral autoethnography (2006) and an autoethnographic book (2026). Both revisit a distance-running career that led to two Olympic Games for a small Islamic Island state. Sociological accounts of discipline, the sport ethic and misrecognition explain how national honour, scarce opportunity, injury concealment and dependency made compliance appear voluntary when refusal carried sporting and relational costs. The Islamic concepts of amanah (trust), 'adl (justice), la darar wa la dirar (non-harm), shura (consultation) and hisab (accountability) are then used as sensitising concepts to evaluate that authority. The article argues that sporting authority is a conditional trust in which greater control creates greater responsibility, and that answerability should not depend on an athlete's willingness to complain. The historical office of hisbah is examined as a disciplined precedent for preventative oversight, not as a template for regulation. The analysis contributes a culturally situated ethical vocabulary to safeguarding scholarship on small-state and Muslim-majority sport systems.
Adams, T. E., Holman Jones, S., & Ellis, C. (2015). Autoethnography: Understanding qualitative research. Oxford University Press.
al-Bukhari, M. ibn I. (1997). Sahih al-Bukhari (M. M. Khan, Trans.; Vols. 1–9). Darussalam.
Al-Dafrawi, A. S. A. (2020). An Islamic viewpoint on doping in sports: An analytical study. Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization, 10(2), 107–126. https://doi.org/10.32350/jitc.102.07
al-Mawardi, A. al-H. (1996). The ordinances of government: A translation of al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya w'al-Wilayat al-Diniyya (W. H. Wahba, Trans.). Garnet.
al-Raysuni, A. (2011). Al-shura: The Qur'anic principle of consultation (N. Roberts, Trans.). International Institute of Islamic Thought.
Anderson, L. (2006). Analytic autoethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 35(4), 373–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241605280449
Anderson, L., & Jackson, S. (2013). Competing loyalties in sports medicine: Threats to medical professionalism in elite, commercial sport. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 48(2), 238–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690211435031
Benn, T., Pfister, G., & Jawad, H. (Eds.). (2011). Muslim women and sport. Routledge.
Bloodworth, A., McNamee, M., & Tan, J. (2017). Autonomy, eating disorders and elite gymnastics: Ethical and conceptual issues. Sport, Education and Society, 22(8), 878–889. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2015.1107829
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice (R. Nice, Trans.). Cambridge University Press.
Brackenridge, C., & Kirby, S. (1997). Playing safe: Assessing the risk of sexual abuse to elite child athletes. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 32(4), 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269097032004005
Chang, H. (2008). Autoethnography as method. Left Coast Press.
Channon, A., & Matthews, C. R. (2022). Communicating consent in sport: A typological model of athletes' consent practices within combat sports. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 57(6), 899–917. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902211043992
Chroni, S. A., Skille, E. Å., Hansen, P. Ø., Alexopoulos, A., Benítez-Sillero, J. D., Brazier, R., Calmaestra, J., Kavoura, A., Kerr-Cumbo, R., Lara-Bercial, S., Navarro, A., Nery, M., Nicolini, C., Verhelle, H., Vivirito, S., & Hassandra, M. (2026). Safe sport in Mediterranean contexts: Cultural logics of harm, silence, and authority. European Journal of Sport Science, 26(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsc.70168
Cook, M. (2000). Commanding right and forbidding wrong in Islamic thought. Cambridge University Press.
Cushion, C. J., & Jones, R. L. (2006). Power, discourse, and symbolic violence in professional youth soccer: The case of Albion Football Club. Sociology of Sport Journal, 23(2), 142–161. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.23.2.142
Denison, J. (2007). Social theory for coaches: A Foucauldian reading of one athlete's poor performance. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 2(4), 369–383. https://doi.org/10.1260/174795407783359777
Ellis, C. (2007). Telling secrets, revealing lives: Relational ethics in research with intimate others. Qualitative Inquiry, 13(1), 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800406294947
Fakhry, M. (1991). Ethical theories in Islam. Brill.
Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison (A. Sheridan, Trans.). Pantheon Books.
Gearity, B. T., Fisher, L. A., Yandt, A., Perugini, A., Knust, S. K., Bejar, M. P., Shigeno, T. C., Larsen, L. K., & Fynes, J. M. (2023). Deconstructing caring in the coach athlete relationship: A gentler form of domination. Sports Coaching Review, 12(1), 6–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2021.1936959
Gleave, R. (2004). Hisba. In R. C. Martin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world (Vol. 1). Macmillan Reference USA. https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hisba
Gomez, C., & Schoch, L. (2026). Safeguarding in sport: Toward a performative compliance of international sports federations? International Review for the Sociology of Sport. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902251404389
Gurgis, J. J., Kerr, G., & Darnell, S. (2022). "Safe sport is not for everyone": Equity-deserving athletes' perspectives of, experiences and recommendations for safe sport. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 832560. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.832560
Haleem, H. (2006). Running in pain: An autoethnography of power, coercion and injury in a coach-athlete relationship [Doctoral thesis, University of Otago]. OUR Archive. https://hdl.handle.net/10523/141
Haleem, H. (2026). (UN)defeated Maldivian Olympian: An autoethnography of the first Maldivian Olympian. Muhibbah Publications.
Hallaq, W. B. (2009). Shari'a: Theory, practice, transformations. Cambridge University Press.
Healy, J., & Walton, M. (2016). Health ombudsmen in polycentric regulatory fields: England, New Zealand, and Australia. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 75(4), 492–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8500.12187
Houlihan, B., & Zheng, J. (2015). Small states: Sport and politics at the margin. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 7(3), 329–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2014.959032
Hughes, R., & Coakley, J. (1991). Positive deviance among athletes: The implications of overconformity to the sport ethic. Sociology of Sport Journal, 8(4), 307–325. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.8.4.307
Hurst, P., Kavussanu, M., & Stirling, A. (2025). Elite athletes report lower psychological safety and are less likely to report interpersonal violence compared to recreational athletes: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2025.2523872
Hussain, U., & Cunningham, G. B. (2024). The Muslim community and sport scholarship: A scoping review to advance sport management research. European Sport Management Quarterly, 24(2), 536–558. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2022.2134434
Ibn Majah, M. ibn Y. (2007). Sunan Ibn Majah (N. al-Khattab, Trans.; Vols. 1–5). Darussalam.
Izutsu, T. (2002). Ethico-religious concepts in the Qur'an. McGill-Queen's University Press.
Jeffrey, A., & Pawl, T. (2025). The virtue of patience. Philosophy Compass, 20(3), Article e70025. https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.70025
Kamali, M. H. (2003). Principles of Islamic jurisprudence (3rd ed.). Islamic Texts Society.
Kavanagh, T. (2025). Bruised and confused: An autoethnography of concussion in rugby union. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 60(4), 551–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902241275276
Kerr, G., Gurgis, J., Wensel, S., Willson, E., Schwender, J. T., & Porter, J. (2025). Is sport safe with safe sport? A critical examination. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 81, Article 102964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102964
Khomutova, A., Chroni, S. A., Kavanagh, E., Ruffault, A., Miles, A., Moesch, K., Fontanesi, L., Nery, M., & Vertommen, T. (2025). FEPSAC position statement on safeguarding athletes in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 80, Article 102897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102897
Kuhlin, F., & Barker-Ruchti, N. (2025). The abuse narrative in sport: The findings of a framework synthesis literature review. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 17(5), 382–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2025.2487700
Kuhlin, F., Barker-Ruchti, N., & Stewart, C. (2020). Long-term impact of the coach-athlete relationship on development, health, and wellbeing: Stories from a figure skater. Sports Coaching Review, 9(2), 208–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2019.1620016
Markula, P., & Pringle, R. (2006). Foucault, sport and exercise: Power, knowledge and transforming the self. Routledge.
Marsollier, E., & Hauw, D. (2022). Navigating in the gray area of coach-athlete relationships in sports: Toward an in-depth analysis of the dynamics of athlete maltreatment experiences. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 859372. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.859372
McGee, S., Kerr, G., Atkinson, M., & Stirling, A. (2025). "I always just viewed it as part of sport": Psychological maltreatment and conformity to the sport ethic. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 37(4), 487–506. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2024.2414002
Mills, J. P., & Denison, J. (2018). How power moves: A Foucauldian analysis of (in)effective coaching. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 53(3), 296–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690216654719
Mohammed Insaf, M. G., & Shehu, F. (2025). Exploring the Islamic ethical framework for athletes: Its significance, development, and justification. Journal of Islam in Asia, 22(1), 254–274. https://doi.org/10.31436/jia.v22i1.1223
Mountjoy, M., Brackenridge, C., Arrington, M., Blauwet, C., Carska-Sheppard, A., Fasting, K., Kirby, S., Leahy, T., Marks, S., Martin, K., Starr, K., Tiivas, A., & Budgett, R. (2016). International Olympic Committee consensus statement: Harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(17), 1019–1029. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-096121
Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. (2007). Sahih Muslim (N. al-Khattab, Trans.; Vols. 1–7). Darussalam.
O'Brien, B. C., Harris, I. B., Beckman, T. J., Reed, D. A., & Cook, D. A. (2014). Standards for reporting qualitative research: A synthesis of recommendations. Academic Medicine, 89(9), 1245–1251. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000388
Osman, A. (2023). The right to be forgotten: An Islamic perspective. Human Rights Review, 24(1), 53–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12142-022-00672-2
Öztürk, P., Kavaso?lu, ?., K?z?lgüne?, M., & Koca, C. (2026). Prevalence, gender differences, and perpetrators of harassment and abuse in sport: Evidence from Türkiye. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/17479541261448398
Padela, A. I. (2022). Maq??id? models for an "Islamic" medical ethics: Problem-solving or confusing at the bedside? American Journal of Islam and Society, 39(1–2), 72–114. https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v39i1-2.3069
Park, H., Sam, M. P., & Jackson, S. J. (2025). Entrenched maltreatment in sport: Unintended consequences of the mix of practices and narratives. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 60(1), 101–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902241264032
Purdy, L., Potrac, P., & Jones, R. (2008). Power, consent and resistance: An autoethnography of competitive rowing. Sport, Education and Society, 13(3), 319–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573320802200693
The Qur'an (M. A. S. Abdel Haleem, Trans.). (2004). Oxford University Press.
Roberts, V., Sojo, V., & Grant, F. (2020). Organisational factors and non-accidental violence in sport: A systematic review. Sport Management Review, 23(1), 8–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.001
Roderick, M. (2006). Adding insult to injury: Workplace injury in English professional football. Sociology of Health & Illness, 28(1), 76–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9566.2006.00483.x
Roderick, M., Waddington, I., & Parker, G. (2000). Playing hurt: Managing injuries in English professional football. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 35(2), 165–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269000035002003
Sachedina, A. (2009). Islamic biomedical ethics: Principles and application. Oxford University Press.
Saifuddeen, S. M., Rahman, N. N. A., Isa, N. M., & Baharuddin, A. (2014). Maqasid al-shariah as a complementary framework to conventional bioethics. Science and Engineering Ethics, 20(2), 317–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-013-9457-0
Sam, M. P., & Jackson, S. J. (2015). Sport and small states: The myths, limits and contradictions of the legend of David and Goliath. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 7(3), 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2015.1031814
Solstad, G. M. (2019). Reporting abuse in sport: A question of power? European Journal for Sport and Society, 16(3), 229–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/16138171.2019.1655851
Sparkes, A. C. (2024). Autoethnography as an ethically contested terrain: Some thinking points for consideration. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 21(1), 107–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2023.2293073
Stilt, K. (2011). Islamic law in action: Authority, discretion, and everyday experiences in Mamluk Egypt. Oxford University Press.
Stirling, A. E., & Kerr, G. A. (2008). Defining and categorizing emotional abuse in sport. European Journal of Sport Science, 8(4), 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390802086281
Tak, M., Kim, Y. J., & Rhind, D. J. A. (2025). Rights-based policies for role-bearing people: Are geo-cultural norms a hindrance to cultivating safer sport? International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 60(4), 591–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902241277225
Toffoletti, K., & Palmer, C. (2017). New approaches for studies of Muslim women and sport. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 52(2), 146–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690215589326
Tolich, M. (2010). A critique of current practice: Ten foundational guidelines for autoethnographers. Qualitative Health Research, 20(12), 1599–1610. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732310376076
Tuakli-Wosornu, Y. A., Burrows, K., Fasting, K., Hartill, M., Hodge, K., Kaufman, K., Kavanagh, E., Kirby, S. L., MacLeod, J. G., Mountjoy, M., Parent, S., Tak, M., Vertommen, T., & Rhind, D. J. A. (2024). IOC consensus statement: Interpersonal violence and safeguarding in sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 58(22), 1322–1344. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2024-108766
Tuakli-Wosornu, Y. A., Kirby, S. L., Tivas, A., & Rhind, D. (2023). The journey to reporting child protection violations in sport: Stakeholder perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 907247. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.907247
Wa?kiewicz, Z. (2026). Reliance management in healthcare for professional and elite athletes: Ethics, patient-centered care, and governance. Healthcare, 14(16), Article 2473. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare14162473
Weerasinghe, K., Jayawardena, R., Nanayakkara, I., & Hills, A. P. (2026). "It's never just one thing": Understanding risk factors for sports injuries in track and field. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 18(1), Article 279. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-026-01719-4
Willson, E., Kerr, G., Battaglia, A., & Stirling, A. (2022). Listening to athletes' voices: National team athletes' perspectives on advancing safe sport in Canada. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 4, Article 840221. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.840221
Woessner, M. N., Pankowiak, A., Kavanagh, E., Parent, S., Vertommen, T., Eime, R., Spaaij, R., Harvey, J., & Parker, A. G. (2024). Telling adults about it: Children's experience of disclosing interpersonal violence in community sport. Sport in Society, 27(5), 661–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2023.2268555
Haleem, H., & Mahmoud, A. S. (2026). Broken Trust in Olympic Sport: An Autoethnography of Coach Authority, Consent and Islamic Accountability. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 16(10), 253–270.
Copyright: © 2026 The Author(s)
Published by Knowledge Words Publications (www.kwpublications.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
