Employee engagement remains a critical yet persistently challenging issue for organizations, particularly in structured, operational environments. Despite extensive research, prevailing approaches often emphasize direct associations between workplace conditions and engagement, offering limited insight into the psychological processes underlying engagement. Addressing this limitation, this conceptual paper advances a process-based framework of employee engagement grounded in the Stimulus–Organism–Response (SOR) model. The proposed framework conceptualizes ethical leadership, psychological safety, and role clarity as organizational stimuli that shape employees’ internal psychological state of empowerment, which, in turn, gives rise to employee engagement as a behavioral response. By positioning psychological empowerment as the central organismic mechanism, the paper provides a coherent explanation of how organizational conditions are cognitively and affectively internalized by employees. While the framework is theoretically generalizable, it is particularly relevant to multinational manufacturing organizations operating in Malaysia, where hierarchical structures and operational demands strongly influence employee experience. The paper develops a set of theoretically grounded propositions and outlines implications for future empirical research and organizational practice.
Afsar, B., Al-Ghazali, B. M., Cheema, S., & Javed, F. (2020). Cultural intelligence and innovative work behavior: the role of work engagement and interpersonal trust. European Journal of Innovation Management, 24(4), 1082–1109. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJIM-01-2020-0008
Arefin, M. S., Alam, M. S., Islam, M. R., & Rahaman, M. (2019). High-performance work systems and job engagement: The mediating role of psychological empowerment. Cogent Business & Management, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2019.1664204
Bailey, C., Madden, A., Alfes, K., & Fletcher, L. (2017). The Meaning, Antecedents and Outcomes of Employee Engagement: A Narrative Synthesis. International Journal of Management Reviews, 19(1), 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12077
Bakker, A. B. (2022). The social psychology of work engagement: state of the field. Career Development International, 27(1), 36–53. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-08-2021-0213
Bakker, A. B., & Albrecht, S. (2018). Work engagement: current trends. In Career Development International (Vol. 23, Number 1, pp. 4–11). Emerald Group Holdings Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-11-2017-0207
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. In Journal of Managerial Psychology (Vol. 22, Number 3). https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002
Burhan, Q. ul A., Khan, M. A., & Malik, M. F. (2023). Ethical leadership: a dual path model for fostering ethical voice through relational identification, psychological safety, organizational identification and psychological ownership. RAUSP Management Journal, 58(4), 341–362. https://doi.org/10.1108/RAUSP-01-2023-0008
Carmeli, A., & Gittell, J. H. (2009). High-quality relationships, psychological safety, and learning from failures in work organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(6), 709–729. https://doi.org/10.1002/JOB.565
Chan, A. J., Hooi, L. W., & Ngui, K. S. (2021). Do digital literacies matter in employee engagement in digitalised workplace? Journal of Asia Business Studies, 15(3), 523–540. https://doi.org/10.1108/JABS-08-2020-0318
Christian, M. S., Garza, A. S., & Slaughter, J. E. (2011). Work engagement: A quantitative review and test of its relations with task and contextual performance. Personnel Psychology, 64(1), 89–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01203.x
Chung, B. G., Shore, L. M., Wiegand, J. P., & Xu, J. (2024). The effects of inclusive psychological climate, leader inclusion, and workgroup inclusion on trust and organizational identification. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-08-2023-0278
Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: An Interdisciplinary review. In Journal of Management (Vol. 31, Number 6, pp. 874–900). https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206305279602
Dey, M., Bhattacharjee, S., Mahmood, M., Uddin, M. A., & Biswas, S. R. (2022). Ethical leadership for better sustainable performance: Role of employee values, behavior and ethical climate. Journal of Cleaner Production, 337, 130527. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2022.130527
Edmondson, A. (1999). Psychological Safety and Learning Behavior in Work Teams. In Source: Administrative Science Quarterly (Vol. 44, Number 2).
Edmondson, A. C., & Bransby, D. P. (2023). Psychological Safety Comes of Age: Observed Themes in an Established Literature. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 10(Volume 10, 2023), 55–78. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ORGPSYCH-120920-055217/CITE/REFWORKS
Edmondson, A. C., & Lei, Z. (2014). Psychological Safety: The History, Renaissance, and Future of an Interpersonal Construct. In Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior (Vol. 1). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091305
Espedido, A., & Searle, B. J. (2021). Proactivity, stress appraisals, and problem-solving: A cross-level moderated mediation model. Work & Stress, 35(2), 132–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2020.1767723
Fonseca, N. (2025, July 9). Why Engaged Employees Are Your Best Competitive Advantage. Great Place to Work Website. https://www.greatplacetowork.ca/en/articles/why-engaged-employees-are-your-best-competitive-advantage
Frazier, M. L., Fainshmidt, S., Klinger, R. L., Pezeshkan, A., & Vracheva, V. (2017). Psychological Safety: A Meta-Analytic Review and Extension. Personnel Psychology, 70(1), 113–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/PEPS.12183
Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322
Gallup Inc. (2023). State of the Global Workplace: Global Insights.
Gallup Inc. (2025). State of the Global Workplace Report. Gallup Inc. https://www.gallup.com/workplace/349484/state-of-the-global-workplace.aspx
Gasparovich, E. O., Uskova, E. V., & Dongauzer, E. V. (2021). The Impact of Digitalization on Employee Engagement. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 161 LNNS, 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60926-9_20
Ghobakhloo, M., Mahdiraji, H. A., Iranmanesh, M., & Jafari-Sadeghi, V. (2024). From Industry 4.0 Digital Manufacturing to Industry 5.0 Digital Society: a Roadmap Toward Human-Centric, Sustainable, and Resilient Production. Information Systems Frontiers. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10796-024-10476-Z
Gupta, N., & Sharma, V. (2019). Employee engagement: A structured review of antecedents and consequences. International Journal of Business Innovation and Research, 19(4). https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBIR.2019.101652
Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 268–279. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.2.268
Jada, U. R., & Mukhopadhyay, S. (2018). Empowering leadership and constructive voice behavior: a moderated mediated model. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 26(2). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-03-2017-1146
Juyumaya, J. (2022). How psychological empowerment impacts task performance: The mediation role of work engagement and moderating role of age. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.889936
Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692–724.
Kim, M., & Kim, J. (2021). Corporate social responsibility, employee engagement, well-being and the task performance of frontline employees. Management Decision, 59(8). https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-03-2020-0268
Kossyva, D., Theriou, G., Aggelidis, V., & Sarigiannidis, L. (2023). Outcomes of engagement: A systematic literature review and future research directions. Heliyon, 9(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17565
Lan, M., Hu, Z., & Nie, T. (2025). Unwilling or Unable? The Impact of Role Clarity and Job Competence on Frontline Employees’ Taking Charge Behaviors in Hospitality Industry. Behavioral Sciences, 15(4), 526. https://doi.org/10.3390/BS15040526
Lee, Y., Shin, H. Y., Park, J., Kim, W., & Cho, D. (2017). An integrative literature review on employee engagement in the field of human resource development: exploring where we are and where we should go. Asia Pacific Education Review, 18(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9508-3
Macey, W. H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The Meaning of Employee Engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1(1), 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2007.0002.x
Megat, P. A., & Krishnan, L. (2023). Key Drivers of Employee Engagement in Malaysian Manufacturing Sector. International Journal Of Academic Research In Business And Social Sciences, 13(12). https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i12/19513
Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. A. (1974). The basic emotional impact of environments. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 38, 283–301.
Monje-Amor, A., Xanthopoulou, D., Calvo, N., & Abeal Vázquez, J. P. (2021). Structural empowerment, psychological empowerment, and work engagement: A cross-country study. European Management Journal, 39(6), 779–789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2021.01.005
Moura, S. T. G., Lawton, T. C., & Tobin, D. (2025). How do multinational enterprises respond to geopolitics? A review and research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 28(1), e12399. https://doi.org/10.1111/IJMR.12399;PAGE:STRING:ARTICLE/CHAPTER
Nechanska, E., Hughes, E., & Dundon, T. (2020). Towards an integration of employee voice and silence. Human Resource Management Review, 30(1), 100674. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HRMR.2018.11.002
Othman, S. A., & Mahmood, N. H. N. (2020). Linking Level of Engagement, HR Practices and Employee Performance Among High-potential Employees in Malaysian Manufacturing Sector. Global Business Review, 23(3), 641–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150919877342
Rahi, S. (2022). Investigating the role of employee psychological well-being and psychological empowerment with relation to work engagement and sustainable employability. International Journal of Ethics and Systems, 38(2), 266–285. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOES-12-2020-0200
Rizzo, J. R., House, R. J., & Lirtzman, S. I. (1970). Role Conflict and Ambiguity in Complex Organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 15(2), 150. https://doi.org/10.2307/2391486
Saks, A. M. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21(7), 600–619. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940610690169
Saks, A. M. (2019). Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement revisited. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness, 6(1), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-06-2018-0034
Saks, A. M., & Gruman, J. A. (2014). What Do We Really Know About Employee Engagement? Human Resource Development Quarterly, 25(2), 155–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21187
Saks, A. M., Gruman, J. A., & Zhang, Q. (2022). Organization engagement: a review and comparison to job engagement. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-12-2020-0253
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzalez-Roma, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The Measurement of Engagement and Burnout. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(No 1), 71–92.
Schaufeli, W., & Salanova, M. (2006). Work engagement. An emerging psychological concept and its implications for organizations. Research in Social Issues in Management (Volume 5): Managing Social and Ethical Issues in Organizations, 135–177.
Schermuly, C. C., Creon, L., Gerlach, P., Graßmann, C., & Koch, J. (2022). Leadership Styles and Psychological Empowerment: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 29(1), 73–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/15480518211067751
Seibert, S. E., Wang, G., & Courtright, S. H. (2011). Antecedents and Consequences of Psychological and Team Empowerment in Organizations: A Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(5). https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022676
Shuck, B., & Reio, T. G. (2011). The employee engagement landscape and HRD: How do we link theory and scholarship to current practice? Advances in Developing Human Resources, 13(4), 419–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422311431153
Skinner, B. F. (1954). Science and human behavior. Science Education, 38(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.37303805120
Spreitzer, G. (1995). Psychological Empowerment in the Workplace- Dimension, Measurement and Validation. Academy of Management Journal.
Stahl, G. K., Brewster, C. J., Collings, D. G., & Hajro, A. (2020). Enhancing the role of human resource management in corporate sustainability and social responsibility: A multi-stakeholder, multidimensional approach to HRM. Human Resource Management Review, 30(3), 100708. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HRMR.2019.100708
Tan, S. J., Wider, W., Jiang, L., Udang, L. N., Sam, T. H., Cloyd, J., & Tanucan, M. (2024). Factors influencing millennial employees’ turnover intention in multinational corporations in Penang, Malaysia. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 2024(7), 3922. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i7.3922
Towsen, T., Stander, M. W., & van der Vaart, L. (2020). The Relationship Between Authentic Leadership, Psychological Empowerment, Role Clarity, and Work Engagement: Evidence From South Africa. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01973
Upadhyay, A., Balodi, K. C., Naz, F., Di Nardo, M., & Jraisat, L. (2023). Implementing industry 4.0 in the manufacturing sector: Circular economy as a societal solution. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 177, 109072. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CIE.2023.109072
Uzozie, O. T., Onukwulu, E. C., Olaleye, I. A., Makata, C. O., Paul, P. O., & Esan, O. J. (2023). Global Talent Management in Multinational Corporations: Challenges and Strategies: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Growth Evaluation, 4(1), 1095–1101. https://doi.org/10.54660/.ijmrge.2023.4.1.1095-1101
Van den Broeck, A., & Parker, S. K. (2017). Job and Work Design. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1093/ACREFORE/9780190236557.013.15
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviourist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/H0074428
Wen, J., Huang, S. (Sam), & Teo, S. (2023). Effect of empowering leadership on work engagement via psychological empowerment: Moderation of cultural orientation. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 54, 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHTM.2022.12.012
Wittenberg, H., Eweje, G., Taskin, N., & Forsyth, D. (2024). Different perspectives on engagement, where to from here? A systematic literature review. International Journal of Management Reviews, 26(3), 410–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/IJMR.12361;ISSUE:ISSUE:DOI
Wollard, K. K., & Shuck, B. (2011). Antecedents to employee engagement: A structured review of the literature. In Advances in Developing Human Resources (Vol. 13, Number 4). https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422311431220
Woodworth, R. S. (1927). Psychology; a study of mental life. Methuen. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009519744
Zahari, N., & Kaliannan, M. (2023). Antecedents of Work Engagement in the Public Sector: A Systematic Literature Review. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 43(3), 557–582. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X221106792/FORMAT/EPUB
Zettna, N., Yam, C., Kunzelmann, A., Forner, V. W., Dey, S., Askovic, M., Johnson, A., Nguyen, H., Jolly, A., & Parker, S. K. (2025). Crystal clear: How leaders and coworkers together shape role clarity and well-being for employees in social care. Human Resource Management, 64(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/HRM.22245
Zhang, X., & Bartol, K. M. (2010). Linking empowering leadership and employee creativity: the influence of psychological empowerment, intrinsic motivation, and creative process engagement. Academy of Management Journal, 53(1). https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.48037118
Victor, R., Hanifah, H., & Vafaei-Zadeh, A. (2026). Employee Engagement in Manufacturing: A Stimulus–Organism–Response Framework of Psychological Empowerment. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 16(1), 1318–1332.
Copyright: © 2026 The Author(s)
Published by Knowledge Words Publications (www.kwpublications.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
