Substance or drug abuse remains one of the most critical threats to national well-being. A key factor contributing to the failure of maintaining abstinence among affected individuals is the lack of social support from the surrounding community. Furthermore, most existing prevention models are adopted from Western contexts, which often do not align with the local cultural and social realities in Malaysia. This highlights the urgent need to explore alternative, locally grounded strategies that incorporate protective and spiritual elements practiced within resilient Malaysian communities. This study aims to investigate and identify the protective and spiritual factors embedded within communities that have successfully remained drug-free despite residing in high-risk areas. Through in-depth interviews conducted with community leaders, youths, youth leaders, and spiritual leaders, this research explores the resilience and preventative practices upheld by these individuals and groups. The findings of this study contribute to the development of a psychospiritual-based prevention module that is culturally relevant and rooted in Malaysian values and community practices. These emerging themes serve as a foundation for conceptualizing a prevention model that can be applied to other communities at risk.
Adeeb, N., & Bahari, R. (2017). The effectiveness of psycho-spiritual therapy among mentally ill patients. Journal of Depression and Anxiety, 6(2).
Adi Pratama, A. R., Puspitasari, A. A., Hidayati, I. R., Yunita, S. L., Titani, M., & Atmadani, R. N. (2022). Factors Affecting the Level of Public Knowledge About the Use of Chlorpheniramine Maleate in Pesanggrahan Village. KnE Medicine. 383-392.
Agnieszka, T. W., Kotarba, G., Dworkin, S., & Wilanowski, T. (2020). Recent Discoveries on the Involvement of Krüppel-Like Factor 4 in the Most Common Cancer Types. International journal of molecular sciences, 21(22), 8843.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211.
Ali-Northcott, L. (2012). Substance abuse. In S. Ahmed & M. M. Amer (Eds.), Counseling Muslims: Handbook of Mental Health Issues and Interventions (pp. 355–382). New York: Routledge.
Alleyne, P., & Phillips, K. (2011). Exploring Academic Dishonesty among University Students in Barbados: An Extension to the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Journal of Academic Ethics, 9(4), 323–338
Amin, A. S., Hishamuddin, A. W., Nurul, A. A. M., Mohd Rushdan, M. J., Mohd, K. A. R., Nurhafizah, M. S., & Siti, N. M. Y. (2017). Reliability and validity of ACREDA drug-related locus of control scale. World Applied Sciences Journal, 35(11), 2394-2400.
Animasahun, R.A. (2010). Intelligent Quotient, Emotional Intelligence and Spiritual Intelligence as Correlates of Prison Adjustment among Inmates in Nigeria Prisons. Journal of Social Sciences, 22(2), 121 - 128.
Aviyah, E., & Farid, M. (2014). Religiusitas, kontrol diri dan kenakalan remaja [Religiosity, self-control and delinquency among adolescence]. Persona: Jurnal Psikologi Indonesia, 3(2), 126- 129.
Azri, N., Rozmi, I., Fauziah, I., & Salina, N. (2015). Individual, family and social environmental factors influencing the involvement of adolescents in substance abuse. Jurnal Antidadah Malaysia, 9(1).
Bagheri, Hamid Z., & Esmaili, M. (2013). The Spiritual Intelligence (SI) components from the perspective of Islam and West (Retrieved from MA thesis entitled: "Identification of factors affecting employees ' Spiritual Intelligence and providing solutions").
Banerjee, A., & Chaudhury, S. (2010). Statistics without tears: Populations and samples. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 19(1), 60.
Beck, J. S. (1995). Cognitive therapy: Basics and beyond. The Guilford Press.
Beck, J. S. (2021). Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Basics and Beyond. New York: The Guilford Press.
Beck, L., & Ajzen, I. (1991). Predicting dishonest actions using the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Research in Personality, 25(3), 285–301.
Bodjanova, S. (2006). Median alpha-levels of a fuzzy number. Fuzzy Sets Syst., 157, 879-891.
Botvin, G., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L., Botvin, E., & Diaz, T. (1995). Long-term follow-up results of a randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a white middle-class population. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 1106-1112.
Bo?ek, A., Nowak, P. F., & Blukacz, M. (2020). The Relationship Between Spirituality, Health-Related Behavior, and Psychological Well-Being. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 1997.
Cai Lian, T., Qiu Ting, C., Bonn, G., & Chee Piau, W. (2015). Drug abuse, relapse, and prevention education in Malaysia: Perspective of university students through mixed method approach. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 1-13.
Carpenter, T., & Reimers. J. (2005). Unethical and Fraudulent Financial Reporting: Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior. Journal of Business Ethics. 60(2). 115-129.
Chakravarthy, B., Shah, S., & Lotfipour, S. (2013). Adolescent drug abuse - awareness & prevention. The Indian journal of medical research, 137(6), 1021–1023.
Chan Yuen, F., & Nor Aizam, A. (n.d.). Using geographical information system to identify high-risk areas of substance abuse in Malaysia. Artikel Jurnal AADK, 1-17.
Chang, P., Hsu, C., & Chang, P. (2011). Fuzzy Delphi method for evaluating hydrogen production technologies. Fuel and Energy Abstracts. 14172-14179.
Cheng, C. H., & Lin, Y. (2002). Evaluating the Best Main Battle Tank Using Fuzzy Decision Theory with Linguistic Criteria Evaluation. European Journal of Operational Research, 142, 74-86.
Christopher C. H. Cook. (2011). Spirituality, Mental Health-Substance Use. In Developing Services development of a cognitive-behavioral model, Addiction, 91, S37-S50.
Cook, C. C. H. (2011). Spirituality, mental health-substance use. In C. B. Developing services development of a cognitive-behavioral model. Addiction, 91, S37-S50.
Degenhardt, L., Stockings, E., Patton, G., Hall, W., & Lynskey, M. (2016). The increasing global health priority of substance uses in young people. The lancet. Psychiatry, 3(3), 251-64
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Dishion, T., Kavnagh, K., Schneiger, A. K. J., Nelson, S., & Kaufman, N. (2002). Preventing early adolescent substance use: A family-centered strategy for the public middle school. Prevention Science, 3(3), 191-202.
Evans-Whipp, T., Bayers, J. M., Lloyd, S., Lafazie, A. N., Toumbourou, J. W., Arthur, M. W., & Catalano, R. F. (2002). A review of school drug policies and their impact on youth substance abuse. Health Promotion International, 19(2), 227–234.
Flavio F. Marsiglia, Stephen Kulis, Tanya Nieri, and Monica Parsai. (2005). God forbid! Substance Use Among Religious and Nonreligious Youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 585–598.
Foxcroft, D. R., Ireland, D., Lister-Sharp, D. J., Lowe, G., & Breen, R. (2003). Longer-term primary prevention for alcohol misuse in young people: A systematic review. Addiction, 98(4), 397–411.
Ghani, S. A., Zamani, Z. A., Rahman, R. M. A., Sulaiman, W. S. W., & Zainal, A. H. (2008). Family functioning and its relation with self-esteem among drug addicts. Jurnal Antidadah Malaysia, 3, 91–106.
Ghazali, D., & Sufean, H. (2016). Metodologi Penyelidikan dalam Pendidikan: Amalan dan Analisis Kajian. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.
Groves, P. (2014). Buddhist approaches to addiction recovery. Religions, 5, 985-1000.
Gruber, K. J., & Taylor, M. F. (2006). A family perspective for substance abuse: Implications from the literature. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 6(1/2), 1-29.
Gruber, M. R. M., Alianan, A. S., Calleja, M. T., Melgar, I. E., Acosta, A., Villasanta, A., et al. (2018). The development of a community-based drug intervention for Filipino drug users. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 12(12), 1-10.
Harding, B. (2007). Relational skills: Establishing cultural credibility. In P. Folsom (Ed.), The New advisor guidebook: Mastering the art of advising through the first year and beyond. (Monograph No. 16) (pp. 97–99). Manhattan, KS: National Academic Advising Association.
Hassan, A. N., Agabani, Z., Ahmed, F., Shapiro, B., & Le Foll, B. (2023). The Impact of religiosity/spirituality on slowing the progression of substance use: Based on the National Epidemiological Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC-III). The International journal of social psychiatry, 69(6), 1399–1408.
Hawkins, J. D., Hill, K. G., Guo, J., & Battin-Pearson, S. R. (2002). Substance use norms and transitions in substance use: Implications for the gateway hypothesis. In D. B. Kandel (Ed.), Stages and pathways of drug involvement: Examining the gateway hypothesis (pp. 42–64). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hechanova, M. R., Alianan, A. S., Calleja, M. T., Melgar, I. E., Acosta, A., Villasanta, A., et al. (2018). The Development of a Community-Based Drug Intervention for Filipino Drug Users. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 12(12), 1-10.
Hung, W. H., Chang, L. M., Lin, C. P., & Hsiao, C. H. (2014). E-readiness of website acceptance and implementation in SMEs. Computers in Human Behavior, 40, 44–55.
Ismail, R., Ahmad, N. A., Ibrahim, F., & Nen, S. (2017). Pengaruh faktor individu, keluarga dan persekitaran sosial terhadap tingkah laku penyalahgunaan bahan dalam kalangan remaja [The influence of family and social environment towards the behavior of substance abuse among adolescence]. Akademika, 87(1), 7-16.
Jazlan, N. M. (2017, December 14). PEMADAM proaktif banteras penyalahgunaan dadah. Berita Harian Online.
Kabugi, P. (2019). Opportunities for faith-based organizations in substance use prevention: A Christian perspective. African Research Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 6(1), 69-76.
Komariah, N., & Nihayah, I. (2023). Improving The Personality Character of Students Through Learning Islamic Religious Education. At-tadzkir: Islamic Education Journal. 2(1). 65-77.
Kumpfer, K. L., & Alvarado, R. (2003). Family-strengthening approaches for the prevention of youth problem behaviors. The American Psychologist, 58(6-7), 457–465.
Kumpfer, K. L., & Hansen, W. (2014). Family-based prevention programs. In L. Scheier & W. Hansen (Eds.), Parenting and Teen Drug Use (Chapter 8). Oxford Press.
Marsiglia, F. F., Kulis, S., Nieri, T., & Parsai, M. (2005). God forbids! Substance use among religious and nonreligious youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 585–598.
Messina, J. (2020). Aggressive? honey, it’s assertive: The forward and honest approach to self-confidence. Barnes & Noble Press.
Mohamed, M., Nazar, Marican, S., Elias, N., & Don, Y. (2008). Pattern of substance and drug misuse among youth in Malaysia. Jurnal Antidadah Malaysia, 56.
Mohammad, M. N., Che Din, M. S., & Ishak, I. (1996). Functional support and familial variables related to multiple relapse cases. Paper presented at the 16th IFGO, December 2–6, 1996, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Mohd Noah, S., & Ahmad, J. (2005). Pembinaan modul: Bagaimana membina modul latihan dan modul akademik. Serdang, Selangor: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Mohd Taib, & Mohd Khairi. (2000). Pola-pola komunikasi kekeluargaan: Kajian di kalangan keluarga penagih dan bukan penagih di Negeri Kedah. Penyelidikan Sekolah Pembangunan Sosial.
Muhammad, N. H. N., Omar, S. H. S., Thoalim, A. S., & Mohamad, N. (2019). Prevention of addiction based on Islamic ways. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 9(2), 865-875.
National Anti-Drug Agency. (2015). Maklumat dadah 2015. Selangor.
National Anti-Drug Agency. (2017). Laporan dadah tahun 2017. Kajang: Ministry of Home Affairs, Policy, Planning and Research Department.
National Anti-Drug Agency. (2018). Laporan dadah tahun 2018. Kajang: Ministry of Home Affairs, Policy, Planning and Research Department.
National Anti-Drug Agency. (2019). Maklumat Dadah [Drug Report]. Agensi Antidadah Kebangsaan Kementerian dalam Negeri. https://www.sistemguruonline.my/wp-content/ uploads/2021/04/Buku-Maklumat-Dadah-2019_ compressed.pdf
Newton-Howes, G., & Boden, J. M. (2016). Relation between age of first drinking and mental health and alcohol and drug disorders in adulthood: Evidence from a 35?year cohort study. Addiction, 111(4), 637-644.
Perone, J. S., & Tucker, L. (2003). An exploration of triangulation of methodologies: Quantitative and qualitative methodology fusion in an investigation of perceptions of transit safety. Report No. NCTR-416-08.1-08.2.
Rafidah Aga Mohd Jaladin. (2013). Barriers and challenges in the practice of multicultural counselling in Malaysia: A qualitative interview study. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 26(2), 174–189.
Rahman, M.A., Zakaria, M.S., Din, R., & Daud, N.A. (2023). Evaluation of Content Validity for Fundamentals of Computer Science Subject. International Journal of Information and Education Technology. 13(1) 181-186.
Schreuder, H. T., Gregoire, T. G., & Wood, G. B. (1993). Sampling methods for multi-resource forest inventory. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Scorzelli, J. F. (1988). Assessing the effectiveness of Malaysia's drug prevention education and rehabilitation programs. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 5, 253-262.
Seghatoleslam, T., Habil, H., Hatim, A., Rashid, R., Ardakan, A., & Esmaeili Motlaq, F. (2015). ‘Achieving a spiritual therapy standard for drug dependency in Malaysia, from an Islamic perspective: Brief review article’. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 44(1), 22–27.
Shuttleworth, M. (2009). Solomon four-group design. Retrieved on 11th March 2015 from http://www.experiment_resources.com/solomon-Four group-design.htm
Substance Abuse Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2006). Counselor’s treatment manual: Matrix intensive outpatient treatment for people with stimulant use disorders (DHHS Publication No. SMA07-4152). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Tan, R., Yee, A., Hatim, A., Ayu, M. S., Danaee, M., & Chuang, A. (2018). Effects of a school-based substance abuse prevention program on students in Malaysia. JUMMEC, 21(1), 40-46.
Tsang, S. K. (2010). Parent engagement in youth drug prevention in Chinese families: Advancement in program development and evaluation. The Scientific World Journal, 2300-2309.
United Nations Office of Drug and Crime (UNODC). (2014). Community-based treatment and care for drug use and dependence. Report.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2020). World Drug Report 2020: Drug Use and Health Consequences. Report.
Vagos, P., & Pereira, A. (2016). A Cognitive Perspective for Understanding and Training Assertiveness. European Psychologist, 21(2), 109-121.
Vojoodi, B., Atarod, N., & Poursharifi, H. (2014). On the comparison of interpersonal sensitivity and assertiveness between drug-dependent persons and ordinary people. Quarterly Journal of Research on Addiction, 8(31), 109-118.
Walters, G. (2019). Prosocial Peers as Risk, Protective, and Promotive Factors for the Prevention of Delinquency and Drug Use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49, 618-630.
Wazir, R., Usman, A. H., Mohd Salleh, N., Sudi, S., Awang, A. H., & Rosman, S. (2020c). Pencegahan dadah dalam kalangan belia berisiko melalui elemen penghayatan akidah. Al-Irsyad: Journal of Islamic and Contemporary Issues, 5(2), 415–424.
Wazir, R., Usman, A. H., Saleh, N. M., Sudi, S., Hadi, A., Syamim, A. &, & Rosman, Z. (2019). Hadis Targhib Dan Tarhib Dalam Menangani Isu Penagihan Dadah: HADIS, 9(17), 48–64.
Whitley, B. (1998). Factors associated with cheating among college students: A review. Research in Higher Education. 39(3), 235-274.
Williams, L. R., Ayers, S., Baldwin, A., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2016). Delaying youth substance-use initiation: A cluster randomized controlled trial of complementary youth and parenting interventions. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 7(1), 177-200.
Yusoff, M. A., Othman, M. S., Abdullah, R. T., Omar, S. M. H. S., & Omar, S. H. S. (2018). Implementation of repentance: The basic changes in drug addicts. International Journal of Academic Research in Business & Social Sciences, 8(4), 706-715.
Yusuf, K. M. (2008). Psycho-spiritual therapy approach for drug addiction rehabilitation. Jurnal Antidadah Malaysia, 143-151.
Shafie, A. A. H. Bin, Baharudin, D. F. B., Kahar, N. F. B. A., & Yasin, N. M. (2025). Reselience in Vulnerable Zones: A Study of Protective Factors in Drug Free Communities. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 15(10), 910–926.
Copyright: © 2025 The Author(s)
Published by Knowledge Words Publications (www.kwpublications.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
