Youths represent the hope of the country that will hold the helm of the country's leadership in future. However, they are not immune to the influence of unhealthy behaviors, particularly smoking. Many young adults, especially university students, are driven to engage in smoking behavior for various factors, including academic and social pressures. However, studies examining the depression of university students in Malaysia who smoke remain limited. This study aims to identify depression, spiritual resilience, and social support of students who smoke in university and to investigate the relationship between spirituality and social support to the level of depression. A total of 351 Muslim students at a public university in Malaysia who smoke participated in this study. The study sample was selected using snowball sampling method. Descriptive findings revealed that the depression levels of university students who smoke is mild. An analisis of Pearson correlation indicated a significant relationship between social support and depression but no significant corellation between spiritual resilience and depression. Additionally, a T-test analysis showed a significant difference in the depression of social smokers and heavy smokers, such that social smokers have a higher mean value than heavy smokers. It was suggested that future studies should broaden the scope to include the spirituality of student smokers from diverse religious backgrounds rather than focusing solely on Islam.
Barton, Y. A., & Miller, L. (2015). Spirituality and positive psychology go hand in hand: An investigation of multiple empirically derived profiles and related protective benefits. Journal of Religion and Health, 54, 829–843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-015-0045-2
Bataineh, B., Wilkinson, A. V., Sumbe, A., Clendennen, S. L., Chen, B., Messiah, S. E., & Harrell, M. (2023). The association between tobacco and cannabis use and the age of onset of depression and anxiety symptoms: Among adolscents and young adults. Nivotine and Tobacco Research, 25, 1455-1464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2023.110971
Benowitz, N. L. (2010). Nicotine addiction. The New England Journal of Medicine, 362(24), 2295–2303. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra0809890
Bhardwaj, A., Prakash, R., Raza, S., Gupta, D., Jose, N.A. Jiloha, R.C. (2024). Socio-demographic correlates and association between level of tobacco intake and severity of depression. Indian Journal of Public Health and Research Development, 15(3), 31-36. http://doi.org/10.37506/ncqp6j63
Boroujeni, R. Y., Cheraghi, L., Akhbar, H. M., Azizi, F. & Amiri, P. (2024). Cardiometabolic profile in young adults with diverse cigarette smoking histories: A longitudinal study from adolescence. Journal of the American Heart Association, 13 (13), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1161/jaha.123.032603
Craig, D. J., Fardouly, J., & Rapee, R. M. (2022). The effect of spirituality on mood: Mediation by self-esteem, social support, and meaning in life. Journal of Religion and Health, 61(1), 228–251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-021-01342-2
Darusalam, G., & Hussin, S. (2016). Metodologi penyelidikan dalam pendidikan. Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
Diaz, N., Horton, E. G., McIlveen, J., Weiner, M., & Williams, L. B. (2011). Spirituality, religiosity and depressive symptoms among individuals in substance-abuse treatment. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 30(1), 71-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2011.542729
Farooqui, M., Shoaib, S., Afaq, H., Quadri, S., Zaina, F., Baig, A., Liaquat, A., Sarwar, Z., Zafar, A., & Younus, S. (2023). Bidirectionality of smoking and depression in adolescents: A systematic Review. Trends in Psyhiatry and Psychotherapyy, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.47626/2237-6089-2021-0429
Fluharty, M., Taylor, A., Grabski, M., & Munafò, M. (2017). The association of cigarette smoking with depression and anxiety: A systematic review. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntw140
Ghazali, D., & Sufean, H. (2016). Methodologi penyelidikan dalam pendidikan: Amalan dan analisis kajian. Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
Guy, J. (2019, November 06). Smokers may be at greater risk of depression and schizophrenia. Retrieved February 02, 2021, from https://edition.cnn.com/2019/11/06/health/smoking-mental-illness-study-scli-intl-wellness/index.html
Harvard Publishing. (2018). Major depression. Retrieved February 02, 2021, from https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/major-depression-a-to-z
Hayward, R. D., & Krause, N. (2013). Patterns of change in religious service attendance across the life course: Evidence from a 34-year longitudinal study. Social Science Research, 42(6), 1480–1489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.06.010
Herawati, N., Suzuki, S., Koyama, H., & Hayashi, K. (2020). Smoking has physical and psychoactive effects, and heavy smoking is associated with depression. Japanese Journal of Health and Human Ecology, 86(6), 273-280. https://doi.org/10.3861/KENKO.86.6_273
Hidaka, B. H. (2012). Depression as a disease of modernity: explanations for increasing prevalence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140(3), 205– 214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.12.036
Ioannou, M., Kassianos, A. P., & Symeou, M. (2018). Coping with depressive symptoms in young adults: Perceived social support protects against depressive symptoms only under moderate levels of stress. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02780
Janet, A. M., Klapec, O., Koita, F., Mankandan, D., & Stone, M. D. (2024). The interacting effects of depression symptoms and sweet falvoring on the rewarding and reinforcing value of cigarillo use among young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports, 11, 1-6.
Jiang, N., Lee, Y., & Ling, P. (2014). Young adult social smokers: Their co-use of tobacco and alcohol, tobacco-related attitudes, and quitting efforts. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.09.013
Khir, A., Rodzuwan, N., Noor, A., Jaafar, W., & Hassan, M. (2020). Sokongan sosial, penghargaan kendiri dan kemurungan dalam kalangan mahasiswa di universiti. https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v5i11.547
Krauss, S., Hamzah, A., Juhari, R., & Abdul Hamid, J. (2005, September 01). The Muslim Religiosity-Personality Inventory (MRPI): Towards understanding differences in the ISLAMIC religiosity among the Malaysian youth. http://psasir.upm.edu.my/3524/
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D.W., (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610.
Lakon, C. M., Wang, C., Butts, C. T., Jose, R., & Hipp, J. R. (2017). Cascades of emotional support in friendship networks and adolescent smoking. PLOS ONE, 12(6), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0180204
Lokman, N. H., & Ismail, Z. (2020). Kemurungan dan keamatan sokongan sosial dengan kepuasan hidup dalam kalangan pelajar universiti di Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 5(6), 68-78.
Luthra, M. (2017). Depression: Current Scenario with reference to India. Indian Journal of Community Health, 20(1), 1-4.
Mahpis, N., & Akhir, N. (2020). Hubungan sokongan sosial terhadap kemurungan dalam kalangan pelajar. Jurnal Wacana Sarjana, 4(2). http://spaj.ukm.my/jws/index.php/jws/article/view/269
ManiMala, S., Gautam, S., & Reddy, G. B. (2016). An overview on depression. Research and Reviews: Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicological Studies, 4(3), 119-124.
Marks, J., Connolly, M., Ellin, A., Newsome, M., Young, A., McArdle, L., & Alberts, N. (2020). Inferiority complex complications: How it affects your body in the short and long term. Everyday health. Retrieved February 06, 2021, from https://www.everydayhealth.com/inferiority-complex/complications-how-it-can-affect-you-in-the-short-and-long-term/
McCoy, K., Parch, L., Marks, J., Hurley, K., Seitzer, M., & Rauf, D. (2012). Smoking and Depression - Depression Center. Everyday Health. Retrieved February 02, 2021, from https://www.everydayhealth.com/depression/smoking-and-depression.aspx
Mendo, C. W., Maurel, M., Dore’, I., O’Loughlin, J., & Sylvestre, M. P. (2021). Depressive symptoms and ciggarette smoking in adolscents and young adults: Mediating role of friends smoking. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 23 (10), 1771-1778. https://doi.org/10.1093/NTR/NTAB046
Mental Health Foundation. (2020). Smoking and mental health. Retrieved February 03, 2021, from https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/a-to-z/s/smoking-and-mental-health
Mo, H., Wang, C., & Li, Y. (2024). Recent tobacco smoking, restaurant and in-car secondhand smoke exposure are associated with depressive symptoms among young adults: a population-based cross-sectional analysis. Scientific Reports, 14, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-54575-y
Mosquiero, B. P., Da Rocha, N. S., & Fleck, M. D. (2015). Intrinsic religiosity, resilience, quality of life, and suicide risk in depressed inpatients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 179, 128-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.03.022
Mulvihill, C. (2014). Parental and Peer Influences on Adolescent Smoking: A Literature Review. Interdicipline Journal of Health Sciences, 33-38. https://doi.org/10.18192/RISS-IJHS.V4I1.1218
Pandey, A., Tiwari, M., Patel, S., & Mishra, N. (2013). Antidepressant drugs in India with special references to Indian herbal plants. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2(4), 2279-2290.
Parenteau, S. C. (2018). Depressive symptoms and tobacco use: Does religious orientation play a protective role? Journal of Religion and Health, 57(4), 1211-1223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-017-0399-8
Pulvers, K., Scheuermann, T., Romero, D., Basora, B., Luo, X., & Ahluwalia, J. (2013, December 01). Classifying a Smoker Scale in Adult Daily and Nondaily Smokers. Nicotine & Tobacco Research: Official Journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco, 16(5), 591–599. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntt187
Santero, M., Daray, F., Prado, C., Hernández-Vásquez, A., & Irazola, V. (2019). Association between religiosity and depression varies with age and sex among adults in South America: Evidence from the CESCAS I study. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226622
Sharma, M., & Kaushik, N. (2016). Parental involvement, psychological distress, perceived social support, coping strategy, and happiness of school going adolescent. International Journal of Social Impact, 1(3). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32192.69121
Siyal, F. J., Jiskani, S. A., Murtaza, A., Gul. A., Bhatti, S. F., Chandio. S., Suraya., S, Siyal, S., Nadeem., Abbas. W., Shaikh Z. A., Malik., E., Humayun, A., Shah, Q., & Shaik, B. (2023). Social support sources and its impact on depression and quality of life among university students. Biological and Clinical Sciences Research Journal, (10), 408. https://doi.org/10.54112/bcsrj.v2023i1.408
Stearns, M., Nardoff, D. K., Lantz, E. D., & McKay, I. T. (2018). Religiosity and depressive symptoms in older adults compared to younger adults: Moderation by age. Retrieved February 02, 2021, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29936390/
Syazwan. (2020, August 21). Merungkai kembali isu had umur belia di Malaysia. Retrieved February 02, 2021, from https://belia.org.my/wp/2020/08/21/merungkai-kembali-isu-had-umur-belia-di-malaysia/
Szczygie?, B., Wanot, B., & Mager?iaková. M. (2018). Depression definition, history of views, recognition. Scientific Journal of Polonia University, 30, 99-106. https://doi.org/10.23856/3010
Tamizi, N. A., Perveen, A., Hamzah, H. & Folashade, A. T. (2024). Relationship of psychological adjustment, anxiety, stress, depression, suicide ideation, and social support among university students. International Journal of Academic Researc in Business and Social Sciences, 14(6), 352-358.
Thomas, J. E., Pasch, K. E., Marti, C. N. & Loukas, A. (2024). Depressive symptoms perspectively increase risk for new onset cigarette and ENDS dependence symptoms. Addictive Behavior, 1-18.
Walker-Harding L. R., Christie D., & Joffe A. (2017). Young adult health and well-being: A position statement of the society for adolescent health and medicine. The Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine Journal of Adolescent Health, 60(6), 758-759. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.03.021
Wilhelm, K., Richmond, R., Zwar, N., & Wodak, A. (2013). Smokers with depression: Helping them quit. Medicine Today, 14(10), 46-53.
Wu, Z., Yue, Q., Zhao, Z., Wen, J., Tang, L., Zhong, Z., Yang, J., Yuan, Y., & Zhang, X. (2023). A cross-sectional study of smoking and depression among US adults: NHANES 92005-2018). Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1081706
Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The Multidimensional Scale Perceived Social Support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2
Amat, M. A. C., Arif, N. S. M., Asri, A. S., & Saidi, Z. A. (2025). Relationship between Spirituality and Social Support towards Depression among Student Smokers in Malaysian Public Higher Education Institutions. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 15(4), 202–218.
Copyright: © 2025 The Author(s)
Published by Knowledge Words Publications (www.kwpublications.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
